The Buddhacharita (Life of Buddha)

Overview

The Buddhacharita (“Acts of the Buddha”) stands as one of the earliest complete biographies of Gautama Buddha and a masterpiece of Sanskrit kavya (court poetry). Composed by Aśvaghoṣa in the 2nd century CE, this epic poem presents the Buddha’s life from birth through enlightenment using the sophisticated literary conventions of classical Sanskrit mahakavya. E.B. Cowell’s 1893-94 translation for Oxford’s Sacred Books of the East series made this foundational Buddhist biographical text accessible to Western scholarship.

The Poet: Aśvaghoṣa

Aśvaghoṣa (c. 80-150 CE) was a Buddhist philosopher, poet, and dramatist whose literary and intellectual contributions profoundly shaped Mahayana Buddhism:

Historical Context

Time Period: Flourished during the Kushan Empire, likely under King Kanishka I

Place: Associated with Saketa (modern Ayodhya) and the Kushan capital

Religious Affiliation: Buddhist, though well-versed in Brahmanical literature

Philosophical School: Contributed to early Mahayana and Yogacara thought

Literary Achievement

Greatest Pre-Kalidasa Poet: Considered the finest Sanskrit poet before Kalidasa (4th-5th century)

First Sanskrit Dramatist: Credited with Śāriputraprakaraṇa, earliest known Sanskrit drama

Philosophical Works: Mahāyāna-śraddhotpāda-śāstra (though Aśvaghoṣa’s authorship debated)

Literary Innovation: Combined Buddhist content with classical Sanskrit literary forms

Significance

Aśvaghoṣa demonstrated that Buddhist themes could be expressed through the highest Sanskrit literary forms, previously dominated by Brahmanical subjects. This cultural synthesis enabled Buddhism’s appeal to Sanskrit-educated elites.

The Text: Structure and Content

Original Form

28 Cantos (Sargas): Following mahakavya convention

Sanskrit Survival: Only cantos 1-14 extant in Sanskrit

Complete Versions: Full text preserved in 5th-century Chinese (by Dharmakshema) and 7th-century Tibetan translations

Poetic Meters: Employs various Sanskrit meters characteristic of kavya

Content Overview

Cantos 1-2: Miraculous Birth

Divine Conception: Queen Maya’s prophetic dream

Birth at Lumbini: Supernatural circumstances surrounding the prince’s birth

Asita’s Prophecy: Sage predicting the child will become either universal monarch or Buddha

Naming Ceremony: Prince named Siddhartha Gautama

Cantos 3-4: Life in the Palace

Luxurious Youth: Prince’s upbringing in palatial luxury

Martial Training: Education in arts, sciences, and warfare

Marriage: Union with Princess Yasodhara

Birth of Son: Rahula’s birth

Cantos 5-6: The Four Encounters

Old Age: Meeting an elderly person

Sickness: Encountering disease

Death: Witnessing a corpse

Ascetic: Meeting a wandering holy man

These encounters awaken Siddhartha to suffering’s universality and inspire renunciation.

Canto 7: The Great Departure

Nighttime Flight: Siddhartha’s secret departure from the palace

Channa and Kanthaka: Accompanied by charioteer and horse

Crossing the River: Symbolic boundary between household and ascetic life

Cutting Hair: Taking on ascetic appearance

Cantos 8-10: Ascetic Training

Study with Teachers: Learning meditation under Arada Kalama and Udraka Ramaputra

Philosophical Debates: Dialogues revealing the inadequacy of existing systems

Rejection of Extremes: Determining that neither his teachers’ methods nor extreme asceticism lead to liberation

Cantos 11-12: Extreme Asceticism

Six Years of Austerities: Severe practices nearly unto death

Five Companions: Ascetics who practice alongside him

Realization of Middle Way: Understanding that extreme self-mortification prevents rather than enables enlightenment

Acceptance of Food: Breaking his fast, scandalizing his companions

Cantos 13-14: Enlightenment

Journey to Bodh Gaya: Arrival at the site of his awakening

Bodhi Tree: Sitting beneath the pipal tree

Mara’s Temptation: Demonic attacks attempting to prevent enlightenment

Night of Awakening: Progressive insights leading to full enlightenment

Buddha’s Realization: Understanding of dependent origination and the Four Noble Truths

Cantos 15-28: Teaching Career (Sanskrit text lost, preserved in Chinese/Tibetan)

First Sermon: Teaching the Four Noble Truths at Sarnath

Conversion of Disciples: Building the sangha

Return to Kapilavastu: Visiting his former home

Devadatta’s Schism: Challenges to Buddha’s authority

Final Days: Last teachings and entry into parinirvana

Literary Characteristics

Mahakavya Conventions

The Buddhacharita employs classical Sanskrit epic conventions:

Natural Descriptions: Elaborate depictions of seasons, gardens, cities

Ornamentation (Alankara): Rich use of similes, metaphors, and other poetic devices

Varied Meters: Different metrical patterns for different moods and situations

Purva-ranga: Invocatory opening establishing the work’s purpose

Poetic Diction: Sophisticated vocabulary and complex compounds

Restraint in Miracles

Unlike later Buddhist hagiographies, Aśvaghoṣa exercises relative restraint:

Psychological Realism: Emphasis on Buddha’s human struggles and psychological development

Natural Causation: Events generally follow natural laws, though with supernatural elements

Philosophical Depth: Focus on Buddha’s intellectual and spiritual journey

Measured Supernatural: Miracles present but not overwhelming the narrative

This restraint makes the Buddha more accessible as a human exemplar while maintaining his extraordinary nature.

Poetic Excellence

Visual Imagery: Vivid descriptions creating mental pictures

Emotional Range: From palace luxury to ascetic suffering to enlightenment peace

Philosophical Integration: Complex Buddhist teachings woven into narrative

Dramatic Scenes: Effective use of dialogue and dramatic tension

Philosophical Themes

Suffering (Dukkha)

The four encounters crystallize Buddhism’s first noble truth:

Universality: All beings subject to aging, sickness, death

Inescapability: Wealth and pleasure cannot prevent suffering

Motivation: Recognition of suffering motivates spiritual seeking

Renunciation

Radical Break: Leaving behind family, wealth, status

Necessity: Liberation requires detachment from worldly life

Non-Extremism: Middle way between luxury and self-torture

Inner vs. Outer: True renunciation is mental, not merely physical

Dependent Origination

Causation: All phenomena arise through causes and conditions

Twelve Links: Chain of causation explaining samsaric existence

Breaking the Chain: Liberation through understanding and eliminating ignorance

Four Noble Truths

Suffering’s Reality: Acknowledging life’s unsatisfactory nature

Origin in Craving: Attachment and desire as suffering’s cause

Cessation Possible: Nirvana as suffering’s end

Path to Liberation: Eightfold path leading to awakening

The Translator: Edward Byles Cowell

E.B. Cowell (1826-1903) was the first Professor of Sanskrit at Cambridge University:

Scholarly Career

Self-Taught: Largely autodidact in Oriental languages

Cambridge Professor: Held the Sanskrit chair from 1867-1903

Persian Poetry: Famous translations of Omar Khayyam (via Edward FitzGerald)

Buddhist Studies: Important contributions to Buddhist text translation

Influence: Trained several prominent Orientalists

Translation Approach

Sacred Books of the East: This translation appeared in Volume 49 (1894)

Complete Text: Combined Sanskrit portions with translation from Chinese for missing sections

Scholarly Apparatus: Extensive notes and introduction

Literary Quality: Attempted to convey poetic qualities while maintaining accuracy

Textual History

Sanskrit Manuscripts

Discovery: Sanskrit manuscripts rediscovered in Nepal in the 19th century

Fragmentary Nature: Only first half survives in Sanskrit

Variant Readings: Multiple manuscript traditions with textual variations

Critical Editions: Various scholars produced critical Sanskrit texts

Chinese Translation

Translator: Dharmakshema (5th century)

Complete Text: Preserves entire 28 cantos

Title: 佛所行讚 (Fo Suo Xing Zan)

Value: Essential for reconstructing lost Sanskrit portions

Tibetan Translation

Date: 7th century

Completeness: Full text preserved

Lineage: Part of Tibetan Buddhist canon

Collation: Used alongside Chinese to reconstruct complete narrative

Historical and Religious Significance

For Buddhism

Early Biography: Among the earliest complete Buddha biographies

Mahayana Development: Reflects early Mahayana perspectives

Cultural Bridge: Connected Buddhism to Sanskrit literary culture

Devotional Resource: Inspired Buddhist devotion through accessible narrative

For Sanskrit Literature

Buddhist Kavya: Demonstrated Buddhist content’s literary viability

Poetic Achievement: Recognized as major literary accomplishment regardless of religious content

Genre Development: Influenced biographical kavya tradition

Cultural Synthesis: Showed Buddhist-Brahmanical literary integration

Comparison with Other Buddha Biographies

Vs. Pali Canon Accounts

Language: Sanskrit vs. Pali

Style: Literary poetry vs. prose chronicles

Audience: Educated elites vs. monastic community

Detail: Focused narrative vs. scattered biographical episodes

Vs. Lalitavistara

Earlier Text: Lalitavistara predates Buddhacharita

More Miraculous: Lalitavistara contains more supernatural elements

Less Literary: Lalitavistara less polished as kavya

Different Emphasis: Lalitavistara emphasizes Buddha’s supernatural powers

Vs. Later Hagiographies

Greater Restraint: Later texts increasingly miraculous

Literary Quality: Few later biographies match poetic excellence

Philosophical Depth: Buddhacharita maintains intellectual sophistication

Influence and Legacy

Buddhist Literature: Inspired subsequent Buddhist kavya

Artistic Representations: Influenced visual depictions of Buddha’s life

Devotional Practice: Read and recited in Buddhist contexts

Western Buddhism: Cowell’s translation shaped Western understanding of Buddha’s life

Comparative Religion: Important text for comparative religious biography studies

How to Access

Available through Internet Archive from Digital Library of India collection. Originally published in Sacred Books of the East, Volume 49 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1894). Various reprints and modern editions available. Public domain, freely accessible for research, education, and devotional use.

The Buddhacharita represents a rare synthesis of religious content and literary excellence, demonstrating how Buddhism could speak through the most sophisticated Sanskrit literary forms. Aśvaghoṣa’s poetic genius made Buddha’s story accessible to educated audiences while maintaining philosophical depth, creating a work that functions simultaneously as devotional literature, philosophical text, and literary masterpiece. For anyone interested in Buddhism’s cultural expressions, Sanskrit literature, or religious biography as literary art, the Buddhacharita remains essential reading.