South Indian Images of Gods and Goddesses
Overview
Published in 1916 by the Madras Government Press, this 320-page iconographic handbook emerged from a directive by Lord Carmichael, then Governor of Madras, who identified the absence of accessible literature on South Indian temple imagery. H. Krishna Sastri, serving as Assistant Archaeological Superintendent for Epigraphy in the Southern Circle, produced a systematic documentation of Hindu deity representations across temples and museum collections in the Madras Presidency. The work represents an early synthesis of Sanskrit textual prescriptions from Agamas and Silpa-Sastras with observable sculptural traditions spanning the Pallava period through contemporary practice. Illustrated with photographs by A.H. Longhurst, Archaeological Superintendent for the Southern Circle, the volume addressed both scholarly and lay audiences seeking to identify and understand iconographic conventions in bronze processional images and stone temple sculpture. The publication fulfilled a recognized gap in accessible reference materials for identifying deity images commonly encountered in South Indian religious contexts.
The study emerged during a critical period when the Archaeological Survey of India was establishing methodological frameworks for documenting India’s artistic heritage. Sastri’s work paralleled T.A. Gopinatha Rao’s monumental “Elements of Hindu Iconography” (1914-1916), which provided pan-Indian coverage, while Sastri concentrated specifically on South Indian regional traditions. The handbook filled a practical need for museum curators, temple authorities, and collectors requiring standardized identification criteria for deity images. By correlating textual sources with extant sculptural examples, Sastri bridged the divide between Sanskrit prescriptive literature and vernacular artistic practice, documenting how iconographic conventions evolved from Pallava innovations through Chola standardization to Vijayanagara elaboration. The work’s publication coincided with increased scholarly and administrative attention to India’s archaeological resources, reflecting broader early twentieth-century efforts to catalog and preserve cultural heritage under colonial administration. Sastri’s methodology combined philological expertise in Sanskrit sources with empirical documentation of sculptural programs across major temple complexes in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.
About the Author — H. Krishna Sastri
Rao Bahadur Hosakote Krishna Sastri (16 September 1870 – 8 February 1928) distinguished himself as one of the Archaeological Survey of India’s most accomplished epigraphists during the early twentieth century. Joining the ASI’s Southern Circle, he succeeded F.W. Thomas as Government Epigraphist and served in that capacity until succeeded by Hirananda Sastri. His scholarly contributions centered on deciphering ancient inscriptions, particularly his pioneering work on Tamil-Brahmi scripts. In a 1919 paper co-authored with K.V. Subrahmanya Aiyar, Sastri identified Tamil linguistic elements in the Brahmi inscription at Mangulam, advancing understanding of early Tamil epigraphy. He achieved recognition for deciphering Ashokan Brahmi inscriptions at Maski and numerous Pallava dynasty records, establishing chronological frameworks for South Indian dynastic history. His epigraphic work provided essential dating evidence for temple construction sequences and dynastic patronage patterns across the Deccan and Tamil country.
Krishna Sastri edited volumes XVII, XVIII, and XIX of Epigraphia Indica, the Archaeological Survey’s primary publication for inscriptional research, maintaining rigorous scholarly standards for transcription, translation, and historical analysis. His 1916 iconographic study complemented his epigraphic work by providing methodological tools for dating and contextualizing sculptural programs through comparison with inscriptional evidence. The honorific title “Rao Saheb” reflected official recognition of his contributions to Indian archaeology. Unlike many colonial-era archaeologists who approached Indian art through Orientalist frameworks, Sastri grounded his analysis in Sanskrit textual traditions while maintaining empirical attention to regional variations and historical development. His dual expertise in epigraphy and iconography enabled comprehensive approaches to temple archaeology, integrating inscriptional patronage records with sculptural analysis. This interdisciplinary methodology influenced subsequent generations of Indian art historians and archaeologists working within the ASI framework.
The Work
The handbook is structured in seven chapters addressing distinct iconographic categories. Chapter I establishes methodological foundations by examining temple architectural conventions, explaining how vahanas (divine vehicles) and structural elements identify Saiva versus Vaishnava dedications, and outlining the Agamic textual corpus governing image creation. The introductory chapter discusses temple components including the garbha-griha (inner sanctum), mukha-mandapa (entrance hall), and maha-mandapa (great hall), situating iconographic programs within architectural contexts. Chapter II addresses Brahma, the rarely-worshipped creator deity, documenting his four-headed representations and associated iconographic features. Chapter III provides extensive treatment of Vishnu and his ten primary avatars including Varaha (boar incarnation), Narasimha (man-lion), Vamana (dwarf), Rama, and Krishna, alongside standing postures like Anantasayin and Padmanabha. Chapter IV, the most substantial section, covers Shiva in manifestations ranging from Nataraja (cosmic dancer) and Dakshinamurti (philosophical teacher) to Bhairava (fierce aspect) and numerous regional variations. Chapter V explores Sakti goddesses including Sarasvati, Lakshmi, Parvati, and Durga, organizing feminine divine principles across three distinct categories and addressing tantric manifestations. Chapter VI documents village deities, Draupadi temples, and regional hero cults, acknowledging folk religious traditions alongside Brahmanical orthodoxy. Chapter VII addresses miscellaneous figures encompassing planetary deities (navagrahas), directional guardians (dikpalakas), celestial beings, and saints.
Sastri’s identification methodology emphasizes three diagnostic elements: mudras (hand gestures), attributes (weapons, emblems, and implements held in multiple hands), and vahanas (animal vehicles). For Vishnu, the chakra (discus) in the back right hand and sankha (conch) in the back left hand, combined with the front right hand displaying abhaya mudra (protection gesture), constitute standard identification markers. Nataraja representations invariably display four arms, with the back right hand holding a damaru (drum), the front right hand in abhaya mudra, and specific leg positions indicating cosmic dance iconography. The text distinguishes Chola-period bronzes through their restrained ornamentation and proportional elegance from Vijayanagara and Nayaka period works characterized by elaborate detailing and elongated figures, citing the monolithic Ugra-Narasimha at Vijayanagara established by Krishnaraya in 1528 as exemplifying later stylistic developments. Sastri provides detailed descriptions of asanas (seated postures) including padmasana (lotus position), virasana (hero’s seat), and lalitasana (relaxed royal ease), correlating each with specific deity types and iconographic contexts. The work explicates how varada mudra (boon-conferring gesture) and kataka mudra (gesture as though holding an arrow) function within multi-armed deity compositions.
Sastri consulted the Tattvanidhi Sanskrit compilation and Hemadri’s Chaturvarga-Chintamani alongside Manasara architectural texts, cross-referencing prescriptive iconographic formulas with observed temple sculptures. He documented how approximately ninety percent of extant South Indian temples originated during the Chola period (circa 850-1250 CE), establishing that dynasty’s artistic conventions as normative for subsequent traditions. The Pallava period (4th-9th centuries CE) receives attention as the foundation for subsequent iconographic developments, with Chola sculptors refining and standardizing earlier experimental forms. References to bronze processional images acknowledge the cire perdue (lost wax) technique and panchaloham (five-metal alloy) compositions comprising copper, tin, lead, gold, and silver, though technical casting details receive minimal elaboration. The work’s comparative methodology examines iconographic variations across temple sites including Thanjavur, Kumbakonam, and Vijayanagara ruins, demonstrating regional adaptations of textual prescriptions. Sastri notes how mythological narratives depicted in temple panel sculptures provide contextual frameworks for understanding individual deity images, linking iconographic programs to textual sources including Puranas and epic literature.
Historical Significance
This volume established foundational terminology and classification systems for South Indian iconographic studies that remained influential through the twentieth century. By providing accessible criteria for deity identification through mudras, attributes, and vahanas, Sastri enabled systematic museum cataloging and scholarly analysis of bronze and stone sculptures. The work’s correlation of Sanskrit Agamic prescriptions with empirical observation created methodological precedents for subsequent art historical research, demonstrating how textual ideals manifested in regional artistic practice. Museum curators and private collectors utilized Sastri’s identification protocols to classify acquisitions, while art historians employed his comparative framework for dating sculptures through stylistic analysis. The Madras Government Museum and other institutional collections benefited from standardized nomenclature and classification systems derived from Sastri’s handbook. Dealers and collectors in the early twentieth-century art market referenced the work when attributing and authenticating South Indian bronze sculptures.
The handbook’s documentation of Chola period predominance in temple construction established chronological parameters for architectural history, while its attention to Vijayanagara and Nayaka developments traced iconographic evolution across dynastic periods. Sastri’s integration of epigraphic evidence with iconographic analysis demonstrated the interdisciplinary potential of archaeological research, encouraging subsequent scholars to synthesize textual, inscriptional, and artistic sources. The work’s treatment of village deities and folk traditions alongside Brahmanical orthodoxy acknowledged the spectrum of South Indian religious practice, expanding iconographic studies beyond elite temple culture. By documenting non-Sanskritic deity cults including Draupadi worship and regional hero deification, Sastri recognized popular religious expressions that coexisted with orthodox temple traditions. As one of the earliest comprehensive English-language handbooks on South Indian iconography, it facilitated international scholarly engagement with regional artistic traditions and established parameters for comparative Hindu iconographic research across South and Southeast Asia.
Later scholars including J.N. Banerjea, whose “Development of Hindu Iconography” (1941) became another foundational text, built upon Sastri’s regional documentation while expanding chronological and geographical scope. The work influenced museum cataloging practices across institutions collecting South Indian art, providing standardized terminology for bronze and stone sculpture descriptions. Subsequent Archaeological Survey publications maintained Sastri’s methodological approach of correlating textual prescriptions with material evidence. The handbook’s accessibility to non-specialist audiences contributed to broader public understanding of Hindu iconographic conventions, supporting cultural heritage education and temple tourism infrastructure development. Its documentation of sculptural conventions provided baseline data for conservation projects addressing temple deterioration and bronze patina restoration.
Digital Access
The complete text is freely available through multiple digital repositories including the Internet Archive, which provides PDF, EPUB, and OCR-searchable formats. Wikisource hosts a transcribed version enabling text searches and scholarly citation. These digital editions preserve the original photographic plates illustrating bronze sculptures and temple carvings, maintaining the work’s documentary value for contemporary research. The volume’s public domain status ensures continued accessibility for art historians, museum professionals, and students of South Indian cultural heritage.
Note: This content was AI-generated based on historical records, academic sources, and archival materials related to H. Krishna Sastri’s iconographic handbook. While every effort has been made to ensure accuracy, readers should consult the original 1916 publication and contemporary scholarly literature for authoritative research purposes.